An enthymeme is a rhetorical device that is commonly used in persuasive writing and speech to convey an argument or persuade an audience. It is an abbreviated form of syllogism, which is a logical argument consisting of three parts: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. In an enthymeme, one or more of these parts is left unstated or implied, relying on the audience’s ability to fill in the missing information.
Enthymeme Structure
Typically, an enthymeme consists of a stated premise or reason, followed by a conclusion. The missing premise is often omitted because it is considered to be widely known or accepted by the audience. By leaving out the premise, the speaker or writer can encourage the audience to actively participate in the argument and draw their own conclusions.
Here’s a simple example of an enthymeme:
- Premise: All men are mortal. (unstated premise: Socrates is a man)
- Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
- In this example, the speaker assumes that the audience is aware of the unstated premise that Socrates is a man. By leaving it unstated, the argument becomes more concise and allows the audience to fill in the missing information.
- Enthymemes are often used in persuasive communication because they rely on shared knowledge and assumptions to make a point. By engaging the audience and appealing to their reasoning, enthymemes can be powerful tools for convincing others or conveying an argument effectively.
Formal vs. Rhetorical Forms of Enthymemes
Formal enthymemes and rhetorical enthymemes are two different types of enthymemes that are distinguished by their purpose and style of presentation. Let’s explore each type:
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Formal Enthymeme:
Formal Enthymeme Example:
- Major Premise: All mammals are warm-blooded animals.
- Minor Premise: Whales are mammals.
- Conclusion: Therefore, whales are warm-blooded animals.
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Rhetorical Enthymeme:
Rhetorical Enthymeme Example:
- Premise: People who love animals don’t support cruelty.
- Conclusion: Therefore, it’s important to choose cruelty-free products.
- In a rhetorical enthymeme, the speaker or writer relies on the audience’s shared values and beliefs to fill in the missing premise. They often use emotional appeals, storytelling, or persuasive techniques to make their argument more compelling and relatable.
- While formal enthymemes prioritize logical rigor, rhetorical enthymemes prioritize persuasion and audience engagement. Rhetorical enthymemes are commonly used in public speaking, advertising, political discourse, and other forms of persuasive communication, where the goal is to sway opinions and influence attitudes rather than strictly adhere to formal logic.
Order of Enthymemes
The concept of first, second, and third order of enthymemes is associated with the work of philosopher Stephen Toulmin. These orders refer to different levels of complexity and depth in constructing and analyzing enthymemes. Let’s explore each order:
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First Order Enthymemes:
- First order enthymemes are the most basic form of enthymemes. They typically consist of a single unstated premise and a conclusion.
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Example of First Order Enthymeme:
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Second Order Enthymemes:
- Second order enthymemes involve an additional level of complexity. They include an unstated premise, a stated premise, and a conclusion.
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Example of Second Order Enthymeme:
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Third Order Enthymemes:
- Third order enthymemes are the most complex and sophisticated form. They consist of multiple layers of implied premises, stated premises, and conclusions.
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Example of Third Order Enthymeme:
- The higher the order of an enthymeme, the more implicit or implied premises and conclusions are involved. Higher order enthymemes require the audience or reader to make more assumptions or fill in more missing information to understand the complete argument being presented.
- The categorization of enthymemes into different orders helps in analyzing the logical structure and persuasiveness of the arguments being made. It allows for a deeper understanding of how implicit reasoning and shared knowledge play a role in constructing persuasive communication.
Evaluating an Enthymeme Argument
Evaluating an enthymeme argument involves assessing its logical structure, soundness, persuasiveness, and the underlying assumptions it relies upon. Most importantly, when reconstructing an enthymeme, the argument should be explicitly stated. This involves detective work and requires a thorough understanding of various aspects, including:
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Rules and Fallacies of Standard Form Categorical Syllogisms:
Familiarity with the rules of standard form categorical syllogisms helps in assessing the logical structure of the enthymeme. It allows you to determine if the enthymeme follows valid deductive reasoning or if any logical fallacies are present. Understanding concepts such as the four categorical propositions (A, E, I, O) and the rules of conversion, obversion, and contraposition can be helpful.
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Translating Ordinary Language into Standard Form Categorical Statements:
Enthymemes often use ordinary language, and translating them into standard form categorical statements clarifies the logical structure. This involves identifying the subject, predicate, and quantifier in each statement and converting them into standard categorical forms (e.g., All S is P, Some S is P, No S is P, Some S is not P). This step helps in analyzing the logical relationships between the statements.
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Distribution Statuses:
Understanding the distribution statuses of categorical terms (subject and predicate) in standard form categorical statements is crucial. Terms can be undistributed (represented by the small letter), distributed once (represented by the capital letter), or distributed twice (represented by the capital letter and underline). Distribution statuses play a role in determining the validity of the categorical syllogism and the enthymeme constructed from it.
Key Steps to Evaluate an Enthymeme:
- Identify the Components: Determine the stated premise(s) and conclusion of the enthymeme. If any parts are missing or implied, try to identify them based on the context and shared knowledge.
- Assess Logical Coherence: Evaluate the logical coherence of the enthymeme by examining the relationship between the stated premise(s) and the conclusion. Is the conclusion a logical consequence of the premise(s)? Are there any logical fallacies or inconsistencies present?
- Evaluate Validity: Consider whether the enthymeme adheres to valid deductive reasoning. If it follows a syllogistic structure, assess whether it conforms to the rules of deductive logic, such as the validity of the major and minor premises.
- Examine Implicit Assumptions: Enthymemes often rely on unstated assumptions that are left for the audience to infer. Identify and examine these implicit assumptions to determine their validity and relevance to the argument.
- Consider Counterarguments: Assess whether the enthymeme is vulnerable to counterarguments or alternative interpretations. Think critically about potential objections or opposing viewpoints that could challenge the validity or persuasiveness of the enthymeme.
- Evaluate Persuasive Effectiveness: Assess the persuasiveness of the enthymeme in achieving its intended goal. Consider the target audience, the rhetorical strategies employed, and the emotional or logical appeals made. Analyze whether the enthymeme effectively engages and convinces the audience.
- Examine Context and Audience: Consider the broader context in which the enthymeme is presented, including cultural, social, and historical factors. Evaluate how the enthymeme aligns with the audience’s beliefs, values, and knowledge.
- Seek External Perspectives: Engage in discussions or seek feedback from others to gain different perspectives on the enthymeme. This can help uncover biases, weaknesses, or alternative interpretations that may have been overlooked.
- Having a strong grasp of these aspects allows for a more thorough and systematic evaluation of the enthymeme. It helps in reconstructing the argument, identifying any potential logical fallacies, and assessing the validity of the reasoning. By systematically evaluating these aspects, you can gain a comprehensive understanding of an enthymeme’s strengths, weaknesses, and overall effectiveness as a persuasive argument.
- Remember, an enthymeme is a type of argument that is based on a logical reasoning process but is presented in a condensed form. It is essentially an incomplete or abbreviated syllogism where one or more premises or the conclusion is omitted, but can still be understood by the listener or reader. The missing parts are often implied or assumed based on shared knowledge or common sense.
Examples of Enthymemes in Advertising
Below are examples of enthymemes commonly used in advertising:
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Enthymeme on the audience’s values and desires of a feeling of freedom:
In this example, the advertiser assumes that the audience values and desires a feeling of freedom. By associating the car with that desirable experience, they create an implicit premise that the car provides a sense of freedom, leading to the conclusion that the audience should purchase it.
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Enthymeme on the audience’s desire to maintain a youthful appearance:
Here, the advertiser relies on the audience’s desire to maintain a youthful appearance. They imply that using their skincare product will result in a reduction of signs of aging, leading to the conclusion that the audience should use their product to achieve a more youthful look.
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Enthymeme on the audience desires of an improvement in physical fitness:
This enthymeme assumes that the audience desires a body transformation or improvement in physical fitness. By suggesting that joining their gym will lead to that transformation, the advertiser creates an implicit premise, ultimately concluding that the audience should become members of their gym.
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Enthymeme on the audience’s desires of increased energy and the ability to overcome challenges:
This enthymeme assumes that the audience desires increased energy and the ability to overcome challenges. By implying that their energy drink enhances energy levels and performance, the advertiser creates an implicit premise that drinking the product leads to those desired outcomes, resulting in the conclusion that the audience should consume their energy drink.
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Enthymeme on the audience’s desires for a clean and healthy living environment:
In this example, the advertiser appeals to the audience’s desire for a clean and healthy living environment. By suggesting that their cleaning product eliminates harmful germs and bacteria, they create an implicit premise that using the product results in a healthier home, leading to the conclusion that the audience should choose their cleaning product.
- In these examples, the advertisers strategically use enthymemes to appeal to the audience’s desires, aspirations, and values.
- By leaving certain premises unstated, they leverage the audience’s knowledge and assumptions, creating a persuasive argument that prompts the audience to take the desired action, such as purchasing a product or adopting a specific behavior.
Examples of Enthymemes in the Media
Below are examples of enthymemes commonly used in the media:
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Enthymeme example focusing on the audience’s value of being well-informed:
This enthymeme assumes that the audience values being well-informed. By implying that their news channel offers accurate and reliable information, the media outlet creates an implicit premise, ultimately concluding that the audience should watch their channel to satisfy their information needs.
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Enthymeme example that advocates for a political candidate:
In this example, the media presents an enthymeme to advocate for a political candidate. The implicit premise is that the candidate’s policies and vision will result in a brighter future. By omitting this premise and appealing to the audience’s desire for positive change, the media encourages support for the candidate.
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Enthymeme example focusing on the audience’s values of being at the forefront of technology:
This enthymeme assumes that the audience values being at the forefront of technology and having a sense of status. By implying that owning the latest smartphone represents being ahead of the curve, the media creates an implicit premise, leading to the conclusion that the audience should upgrade to the latest smartphone.
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Enthymeme that implies that using the skincare product leads to flawless skin:
In this example, the media implies that using the skincare product leads to flawless skin. By assuming that the audience desires flawless skin and suggesting that their product is effective in achieving that result, the implicit premise supports the conclusion that the audience should use the skincare product.
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Enthymeme that assumes the audience has a desire for financial security and growth:
Here, the media assumes that the audience has a desire for financial security and growth. By implying that investing in the company will lead to a secure financial future, the implicit premise supports the conclusion that the audience should invest in the company.
- In these examples, the media utilizes enthymemes to influence public opinion, shape perceptions, and encourage specific behaviors or choices.
- By leveraging shared values, aspirations, and assumptions, they construct persuasive arguments that resonate with the audience and prompt them to take the desired action or adopt a particular viewpoint.
Examples of Enthymemes in Speeches
Below are examples of enthymemes based on famous speeches:
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Enthymeme derived from Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech:
This enthymeme is derived from Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech. It assumes that the audience desires equality and justice. By implying that valuing character over skin color leads to a better society, the implicit premise supports the conclusion that we should strive for such a society.
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Enthymeme based on John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address:
This enthymeme is based on John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address. It assumes that the audience values civic responsibility and national progress. By implying that asking what you can do for your country leads to a stronger nation, the implicit premise supports the conclusion that we should prioritize serving and contributing to our country.
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Enthymeme derived from Franklin D. Roosevelt’s inaugural address:
This enthymeme is derived from Franklin D. Roosevelt’s inaugural address. It assumes that the audience desires progress and courage. By implying that fear is the only thing we should fear, the implicit premise supports the conclusion that we should overcome our fears and move forward with courage.
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Enthymeme based on Winston Churchill’s “We Shall Fight on the Beaches” speech:
This enthymeme is based on Winston Churchill’s “We Shall Fight on the Beaches” speech. It assumes that the audience values victory and the preservation of freedom. By implying that persisting in the face of adversity leads to success, the implicit premise supports the conclusion that surrender should never be an option, and the fight for their cause should continue.
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Enthymeme based on Barack Obama’s speech during his presidential campaign:
This enthymeme is based on Barack Obama’s speech during his presidential campaign. It assumes that the audience desires progress and positive change. By implying that waiting for others or the right time will not bring about change, the implicit premise supports the conclusion that individuals should take responsibility and actively work towards the change they seek. We can deduce that Obama uses an enthymeme to empower the audience and encourage them to take action.
- In these examples, the speakers use enthymemes to inspire and motivate their audience, convey powerful messages, and call for action. By appealing to shared values and ideals, they inspire their audience to stand up for what is right and work towards a better future.
- By appealing to shared values and aspirations, they construct persuasive arguments that encourage positive change and action.